Optional participation only provides a narrow scope for sustaining cooperation

Understanding how cooperation emerges in public goods games is crucial for addressing societal challenges. While optional participation can establish cooperation without identifying cooperators, it relies on specific assumptions-that individuals abstain and receive a non-negative payoff, or that nonparticipants cause damage to public goods-which limits our understanding of its broader role. We generalize this mechanism by considering nonparticipants' payoffs and their potential direct influence on public goods, allowing us to examine how various strategic motives for nonparticipation affect cooperation. Using replicator dynamics, we find that cooperation thrives only when nonparticipants are motivated by individualistic or prosocial values, with individualistic motivations yielding optimal cooperation. These findings are robust to mutation, which slightly enlarges the region where cooperation can be maintained through cyclic dominance among strategies. Our results suggest that while optional participation can benefit cooperation, its effectiveness is limited and highlights the limitations of bottom-up schemes in supporting public goods.