The Hybrid Nature of Educational Infrastructure Development and Private Education Participation in North Korea

This study aims to examine the hybridity of North Korea’s education system by analyzing the development of educational infrastructure and residents’ participation in private education under Kim Jong-un’s leadership. During the Arduous March of the 1990s, North Korea experienced the collapse of public education and the emergence of private education. In the Kim Jong-un era, the government has emphasized the knowledge economy and the information industry while actively working to develop its educational infrastructure. This study first identifies key characteristics of these changes by analyzing trends in education budgets and case studies of educational informatization. Additionally, in-depth interviews were conducted to gain insights into residents' experiences with private education. Private education has been embedded within the conditions and environment of the public education system. Therefore, examining both public and private education together is crucial to understanding the current state of North Korea’s education system. The findings indicate that educational expenditures have steadily increased. Investments have been concentrated on higher education rather than primary education, with significant progress in educational informatization observed in Pyongyang. This reflects a strategy of selective development. However, concerns over regional and structural imbalances persist. Private education functions as both a substitute for and a supplement to public education, and there is a growing trend of private education for hobbies and cultural enrichment. The development of educational infrastructure in North Korea under Kim Jong-un’s leadership is a necessary step toward shaping the country’s future. However, if issues such as budget constraints, digital divides, and social inequality are not addressed, the hybrid and transitional nature of the education system—where public and private education are intricately intertwined—will inevitably persist.