Advances in Human Umbilical Vein Scaffolds for Vascular Tissue Engineering: Innovations, Challenges, and Future Directions

Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine have emerged as promising approaches for developing vascular grafts that mimic native blood vessels. The human umbilical vein (HUV) has been widely explored as a scaffold for vascular tissue engineering due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and ability to support endothelialization. This review explores the latest advancements in scaffold fabrication, including decellularization techniques, heparin modifications, and bioprinting strategies to enhance mechanical properties and endothelial cell adhesion. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have shown potential in promoting vascularization and graft integration. Additionally, the role of extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and angiogenic factors in vascular graft performance is highlighted. Recent studies underscore the importance of hemodynamic factors in preventing intimal hyperplasia, a major challenge in graft longevity. Furthermore, vitrified umbilical arteries and tissue-engineered small-caliber grafts are being explored as alternatives for cardiovascular applications. This review provides insights into current strategies and future directions in vascular graft development, emphasizing precision personalized medicine approaches to optimize graft functionality and patient-specific therapies.