Beyond the closed-forest paradigm: Cross-scale vegetation structure in temperate Europe before the late-Quaternary megafauna extinctions

The Last Interglacial (∼129,000–116,000 years ago) provides key insights into temperate European vegetation dynamics before significant anthropogenic impacts. Using LOVE (Local Vegetation Estimates) and REVEALS (Regional Estimates of VEgetation Abundance from Large Sites) models, this study reconstructs vegetation patterns across local (∼9 km²) and regional (∼100 km²) scales. Local landscapes presented a heterogeneous mosaic, with averages of 17 % open vegetation, 21 % closed forests, and 63 % light woodlands, reflecting high fine-scale heterogeneity. Importantly, weak local-regional correlations highlight the importance of localised drivers. Longitude and, to a lesser extent, precipitation explained some variation in local vegetation openness, but heterogeneity remained unexplained, emphasising the role of disturbance regimes. Shannon diversity and evenness varied widely, indicating a mix of species-rich and more uniform habitats and reflecting diverse ecological dynamics. Beta diversity showed high spatial turnover, suggesting composition was shaped by localised factors rather than uniform climatic drivers. Frequently represented genera, such as Artemisia , Helianthemum , Erica , Filipendula , and Plantago , indicate diverse open and semi-open habitats, shaped by disturbances and hydrological variability. Weak climatic correlations and dominance of disturbance-adapted taxa suggest active disturbance-shaped vegetation. Large herbivorous mammals (megafauna) likely maintained vegetation openness through grazing and browsing; there is limited evidence for frequent fire activities in this period. These findings challenge the closed forest paradigm for interglacials, revealing substantial openness and heterogeneity. This scale-explicit evidence of Last Interglacial vegetation complexity offers insights into the biodiversity and ecological functionality of pre-anthropogenic ecosystems, with implications for modern conservation and rewilding, particularly in maintaining diversity through disturbance and megafaunal interactions. • Temperate Europe had high local vegetation heterogeneity, on average consisting of 17% open vegetation, 21% closed forest, and 63% light woodland. • Weak correlations between local and regional vegetation patterns indicate that local disturbance regimes dominated over broader climatic factors. • The weak climatic correlations and the prevalence of disturbance-adapted taxa suggest that vegetation was actively shaped by disturbances. • The findings challenge the closed forest paradigm, offering insights into biodiversity and ecosystem functionality in pre-anthropogenic environments. • The study highlights the importance of disturbances and megafaunal interactions for maintaining diversity, with implications for rewilding efforts.