The decision to frisk: an exploration of the impact of suspect demeanor and demographic factors on pedestrian stops

Purpose This study explores how suspect demeanor impacts the decision to frisk a suspect during a pedestrian stop and whether the impact of demeanor on the decision to frisk varies by race/ethnicity and gender. Design/methodology/approach The2018–2023 NYPD stop, question and frisk data are used to examine the role of demeanor and suspect characteristics on the decision to frisk using a series of hierarchical logistic regression models. Findings Results indicate suspect demeanor (i.e. calm, nervous and aggression/noncompliance) impacts the decision to frisk, net of stop rationale. Demographic factors were found to moderate the effect of some demeanors on frisk decisions. For example, calm suspects are less likely to be frisked broadly, but interactions revealed that calm men are significantly less likely than calm women to be frisked and calm non-Hispanic Whites are less likely to be frisked than calm Black and Black Hispanic suspects. Originality/value Despite courts upholding suspect demeanor as a legitimate factor for police to consider when establishing reasonable suspicion, examinations of demeanor are missing from research on stop and frisks. This study highlights the importance of incorporating suspect demeanor in research on pedestrian stops to better understand assessments of reasonable suspicion that someone is armed and dangerous.