Auto-induced uplink 4G and 5G RF-EMF exposure assessment using a network monitoring application in different microenvironments across seven European countries

The auto-induced uplink (a-UL) radio-frequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure, often the dominant part of the total RF-EMF exposure, has not been included in previous microenvironmental studies. As 5G exposure depends more on mobile phone usage, monitoring typical transmit power levels is crucial towards more accurate personal exposure assessment. This study describes spatial differences in average mobile phone transmit power and investigates the influence of uplink duty cycles and frequency band usage. A novel methodology using the network monitoring application QualiPoc in fourth-generation (4G) and non-standalone fifth-generation (5G) networks was presented. For the first time, the assessment of 4G and 5G a-UL RF-EMF exposure was conducted simultaneously in a large-scale microenvironmental study in Europe. Measurements were performed along predefined routes in 282 different microenvironments (e.g., parks, residential areas) across seven European countries, during a maximum uplink usage scenario. The Netherlands had the highest average transmit powers per microenvironment (median 20.6 dBm). Transmit powers in villages were 0.6-2.1 dB higher than in big cities. The study suggested that base station density is a key predictor of a-UL exposure. Comparing technologies and frequency bands, average transmit powers for 5G were about 3.3 dB lower than for 4G and lowest for frequency bands with a time division duplexing (TDD) scheme due to the low uplink duty cycle (below 20%). This study provides crucial measurement data for epidemiologists and governments to enhance the understanding of the a-UL component of personal RF-EMF exposure.