Health and well-being in Medieval Estremoz, Portugal: Uncovering the diet and longevity of a distinct and thriving community

• Diet and health of a 13 th to 15 th -century Portuguese town, Estremoz, known for having royal privileges. • Skeletal indicators of physiological stress were assessed to infer overall health. • Diet estimated through the analysis of fauna and stable isotopes analyses preformed in human and faunal bone collagen. • Good quality of life without major nutritional deficits, possibly related with favourable socioeconomic policies. The intersection of socioeconomic policies and health in archaeological contexts highlights how ancient societies’ structures, practices, and regulations influenced their people’s health and well-being. This study investigates the diet and health of a 13th to 15th-century Portuguese town, Estremoz, known for having royal privileges. By analysing human remains for physiological stress indicators and employing stable isotopic analysis to estimate adult diet, the research provides insights into the life of this medieval population. Human remains (141 skeletons: 72 under 15 years old; 69 over 15 years old) from Rossio Marquês de Pombal (13th − 15th centuries) were analysed and faunal remains (N = 171) and bone collagen (N = 13 faunal remains; N = 37 human ribs: 14 females, 18 males, 5 undetermined) were examined to estimate adult diet using stable isotopic composition (δ 15 N and δ 13 C). Skeletal indicators of physiological stress ( cribra orbitalia, cribra cranii , periosteal lesions, stature and body mass) were assessed to infer overall health. The diet was relatively uniform (δ 13 C x̄ = −18.3 ± 0.46 ‰; δ 15 N x̄ = 10.9 ± 0.77 ‰) with some outliers, mostly male, suggesting that there might have been outsiders in Estremoz attracted by the privileges given to its inhabitants. The low and non-severe frequency of physiological stress, particularly in females, indicates a good quality of life without major nutritional deficits. These findings illustrate how bioarchaeological studies can reveal the impact of social dynamics and cultural influences on past health.