New evidence for early Indian Ocean trade routes into the South African interior

The rise and spread of ancient Indian Ocean Rim (IOR) trade networks profoundly impacted southern Africa. Control over this trade played a critical role in the rise and maintenance of complex societies of the second millennium CE such as Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe. While the African origins of this trade lie in the first millennium CE, understanding its earliest phases and subsequent development in the far south has been hampered by a general paucity of research. The recovery of Persian Gulf ceramic sherds and Asian glass beads from the Letaba region of northeastern South Africa demonstrates that communities up to 400 km inland were already part of IOR trade by the 10th century. Although glass beads have been found at several late first millennium CE sites throughout the region, glazed wares are much rarer by comparison. In southern Africa, archaeological sites with Persian Gulf ceramics largely date to between the 9th and 10th centuries with a distribution limited to the Limpopo River's main tributaries. This distribution poses new questions about early IOR trade routes into the southern African interior and suggests Xai-Xai in southern Mozambique as a possible entry point for early IOR trade.