Towards professional solidarity: the first and second congresses of commercial and industrial employees in the late Russian empire 19th century

In the second half of the 19th century, within the Russian Empire, as a result of the development of the market economy and trade, the number of commercial and industrial clerks rapidly increased. Their work was not regulated by law, and there were numerous abuses by employers and harsh working conditions. Clerks tried to improve their situation on their own by creating mutual aid societies. To summarize the accumulated experience of their activities, to clarify the situation of clerks, and to jointly develop measures to improve it, congresses of representatives of mutual aid societies were held. The purpose of the research is to analyze the course and results of the first and second congresses of commercial and industrial clerks at the end of the 19th century, and their significance in the formation of professional solidarity among clerks in the struggle for their professional interests. The methodology is based on the principles of historicism, comprehensiveness, and objectivity, using problem-chronological, historical-comparative, and analytical-synthetic methods. Scientific novelty is that for the first time, the congresses of commercial and industrial clerks at the end of the 19th century are considered from the perspective of the professional movement. Conclusions. The first congress of clerks took place in 1896, and the second in 1898. They raised issues related to the organization of mutual aid, the relationship between clerks and entrepreneurs, working hours, etc. At the congresses, a strong influence of entrepreneurs, their representatives, and the top of the commercial service was manifested. A significant number of delegates demonstrated conservative views and a lack of understanding of the need for deep transformations in labor legislation. Most of the congress's decisions were not implemented due to objective and subjective reasons, but they became important milestones in the development of the professional movement of clerks and the development of professional solidarity.