The technology of masonry and processing of stone materials in the buildings of the 13th-century castle of King Danylo Romanovych in Kholm

The relevance of the study is conditioned by the great cultural significance of King Danylo’s Castle, one of the most unusual architectural objects of the 13th century Rus’. The purpose of the study was to reveal construction technologies, techniques for processing and carving architectural details made of stone, which are used in the construction of castle objects. The research methodology was based on a detailed analysis of the remains of buildings and individual construction or architectural details discovered due to architectural and archaeological research. The study analysed the characteristics of the used natural stones. Archaeological remains of the defensive wall, towers, foundations, and walls of several buildings, the purpose of which has not yet been clarified, present objects created by a highly professional construction workshop. Excavations have revealed a large number of carved decorative architectural details made of glauconitite and limestone, the use of which indicates the richness of architecture and presents specific architectural forms of the Romanesque style. At the first stage, the castle was built only of stone, and at the second stage, brick was also used. The oldest buildings were made of natural glauconite stone. In addition to local green glauconite sandstone, limestone, and fossilised chalk were also used. An interesting feature of the castle is the use of typical Romanesque masonry technology, stone block hewing techniques, and carving of decorative stone details. Based on the results of research, it can be stated that a standard set of hand tools was used. The remnants of carved stone details show the rich plastic structure of the castle’s facades and interiors. Similar products and technologies are not found in other castles of Rus’ at that time. Finds of masonry tools in the castle ruins suggest that most of the technological process of stone processing took place right there in the castle yard. The results of the study allow presenting for the first time a detailed description of the masonry artel of “Master Avdii” – a character in the chronicles about the construction of the castle in Kholm