An “Abode of Discipline and Misery”: Wheelbarrow Men, Reformers, and the Penitentiary in Early National Philadelphia

ABSTRACT This article explores the role of the “wheelbarrow men” in the evolution of Pennsylvania’s legal system. These men, sentenced under the 1786 “wheelbarrow law” to public labor, became living symbols of the law’s failure as they publicly defied and mocked their punishment. Their acts of resistance spurred a societal and legislative shift, questioning the efficacy of public punishment and igniting debates on criminal reform. The article argues that the wheelbarrow men’s challenges to authority were instrumental in the development of the Walnut Street Prison and later, the Eastern State Penitentiary. By centering the wheelbarrow men’s actions, the article demonstrates how legal practices shifted not just through top-down legislative changes but also through the contentious interactions between law, society, and the individuals subjected to punishment. The article reshapes our understanding of early American criminal justice, highlighting the complex interplay between legal theory and the lived realities of punishment.