Comparative study of marker-based and markerless tracking in augmented reality under variable environmental conditions

Augmented reality (AR) technology integrates virtual content into real environments using two main methods: marker-based and markerless tracking. Marker-based tracking relies on printed markers for object placement, while markerless uses environmental features for flexibility and accuracy. This research aims to evaluate the combined impact of environmental factors-distance, angle, and lighting-on these two methods. The Multimedia Development Life Cycle (MDLC) methodology was applied by testing 72 combinations of indicators: distance (5-120 cm), angle (30°, 45°, 90°), and light color (red, blue, green, yellow) using Xiaomi Note 8 and Google Pixel 4. Results show markerless tracking is superior in all conditions, achieving a 94.4% success rate on both devices. In contrast, marker-based tracking only achieved 72.2% (Xiaomi Note 8) and 77.8% (Google Pixel 4). Markerless tracking was optimally performed from 50 cm away and up close, while marker-based tracking degraded in performance at long distances and red lighting. Markerless tracking proved to be more reliable and consistent, suitable for dynamic and diverse environments, while marker-based methods remained relevant for short distances and controlled lighting. These findings provide guidance for AR developers in choosing a tracking methodology according to application needs.