Bridging the Third-Level Digital Divide: Socio-Demographic Determinants of theDigital Outcomes in Thailand

The rapid evolution of digital technologies has transformed modern society, yet significant disparities in digital engagement persist. This study explores the thirdlevel digital divide in Thailand, focusing on how sociodemographic factors shape digital engagement across economic, social, educational, and institutional domains. Using logistic regression analyses on a nationwide 2022 survey with 43,465 respondents, this research offers novel insights by identifying howgender, age, region, income, education, employment status, urban residency, and Internet confidence specifically affect different types of digital engagement. Key findings reveal that men are less likely to engage in online activities compared to women, while younger adults demonstrate higher digital participation. Notably, older adults rely more on institutional digital services, revealing an age-specific pattern. The study also highlights regional disparities, with the northeastern region showing higher engagement and the southern region lower across all domains. Anovel finding is the contrasting role of income, which boosts economic engagement but reduces participation in institutional activities. Furthermore, this study underscores the strong role of education and Internet confidence in driving digital engagement across all areas. These findings offer crucial evidence for designing targeted interventions to bridge the digital divide, such as gender- equality-focused digital literacy programs, initiatives for older adults, regional infrastructure enhancements, financial subsidies, integrating digital literacy into education, and building digital confidence through practical, hands-on national campaigns