Spatiotemporal analysis of surface Urban Heat Island intensity and the role of vegetation in six major Pakistani cities

The Urban Heat Island (UHI) phenomenon exacerbates thermal discomfort in urban areas and significantly contributes to urban overheating when combined with climate change. This study investigates the spatiotemporal patterns of Surface Urban Heat Island Intensity (SUHII) in six major cities of Pakistan, focusing on the interplay between urban expansion, vegetation cover, and SUHII. To quantify SUHII dynamics, the impact of urban sprawl and vegetation changes was analyzed. The study offers critical insights into the implications for urban planning and policymaking in Pakistan. Using remote sensing data from Landsat satellites, analyzed with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques, estimates of SUHII, urban expansion, and vegetation cover were derived. Specifically, imagery from Landsat-5 (2010−2013) and Landsat-8 (2014–2022), obtained from the US Geological Survey (USGS), was employed. Statistical analyses, including Pearson's correlation and linear regression, were conducted to assess relationships between these variables from 2010 to 2022. SUHII was found to increase annually by 0.18 °C in Islamabad and 0.19 °C in Peshawar, with corresponding urban expansion rates of 8.07 km 2 (8967.75 pixels) and 1.67 km 2 (1860.42 pixels) per year, respectively. Vegetation indices such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Fractional Vegetation Cover (FVC) were inversely correlated with SUHII, explaining up to 50 % of the variance in Peshawar. However, weaker correlations in Lahore suggest the presence of additional factors influencing SUHII . A distinct spatial relationship between increased vegetation and cooler areas was observed. For instance, Islamabad has greater vegetation cover and cool zones over 41.5 km 2 . In contrast, Lahore's hot spots spanned 127.1 km 2 , compared to Abbottabad's 10.4 km 2 , underscoring the thermal impact of reduced vegetation. The findings emphasize the effectiveness of urban greening, particularly in Islamabad's neutral thermal regions, in mitigating SUHII . This study offers important insights for urban planners in developing sustainable, climate-resilient cities within similar urban contexts. While the results are specific to Pakistani cities, the role of vegetation in mitigating SUHII may hold broader relevance for urban planning strategies in comparable settings. • UHI impact on cities. • Analyzing UHII patterns. • Vegetation and UHII link. • UHII increase trends. • Implications for UHI mitigation.