Combatting antimicrobial resistance: Mechanisms, emerging therapies, and future directions

Antimicrobial resistance, or AMR, is one of the major health challenges across the globe because of reduced effectiveness against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. This situation arises when there is significant interference with the effectiveness of antimicrobial agents-antibiotics, antifungals, and antivirals-that are considered essential for treatment. Antimicrobials act selectively against specific targets and metabolic processes of microorganisms. However, pathogens continuously evolve resistance mechanisms and complicate treatment efforts. The modes of action and the mechanisms of resistance are discussed, from the point of view of bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens, with an overview of emerging therapeutic approaches, such as bacteriophage therapy and plant-derived antimicrobials. Understanding resistance modes is vital to fully harness existing antimicrobials, construct new synthetic agents, and promote responsible antimicrobial stewardship. It will showcase the existing knowledge and identify the gaps in research, therefore providing insight to guide future efforts in addressing AMR.