Robust facial recognition using deep learning and modified whale optimization algorithm for biometric authentication

The field of biometric systems has undergone significant evolution over the past two decades, driven by advancements in sophisticated digital technologies such as information and communication technology (ICT), the Internet of Things (IoT), the Web of Things (WoT), large-scale memory devices, and high-speed computational processes [1].Today, biometric-driven safety measures are widely adopted by organizations of all sizes, irrespective of their installation capacity. *Author for correspondenceFacial recognition plays a critical role in biometric systems, particularly those focused on public security, aiding in the identification of offenders and the prevention of crimes and related activities [2].The field of computer vision and pattern recognition has also given considerable attention to facial recognition.In light of the global COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a notable shift away from contact-based biometric systems, such as fingerprint recognition, due to health concerns.This transition has led to a surge in interest in facial recognition technologies among biometric vendors [3].Consequently, many international organizations that