Situated Living Labs: Multi-level Theoretical Foundations with Illustrative Case Examples

Living labs have been utilised to help address a diverse range of complex societal issues, but individual instances are situated in a particular time-place-problem context. Previous studies had suggested a need for theory-based reference models to support the framing of living lab operations. The aim of this conceptual paper is to draw on established practitioner and academic experience to match key concepts with an innovative Socio-Technical-System product model and a Cultural-Historical Activity Theory process model adapted for this purpose. Multiple living lab explanatory case studies are used to illustrate the application of the concepts presented and to outline socioeconomic ecosystem linkages with subsidiary innovation, business and knowledge ecosystems. The important contribution of living lab stakeholder experiential learning and impact assessment is noted, and we offer suggestions for future research on these subjects.