Spinach ameliorates dietary oxidized tallow-induced NAFLD by regulating inflammatory cytokines, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, and antioxidant systems

• Hepatoprotective effects of spinach against NAFLD in rabbits were evaluated. • Spinach powder (SP) contains phenolic acid, flavonoids, and phenylpropanoids. • SP improved lipid profiles, LFTs, hepatic antioxidant, pro- & anti-inflammatory markers. • SP was protective against NAFLD & inflammation in the rabbits. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most prevalent chronic liver disorders globally and is a major clinical concern that is increasing in both industrialized and developing countries. This study aimed to evaluate the ability of Spinacia oleracea dried powder in protecting rabbits from the toxicity caused by oxidized-tallow. Oxidized tallow and spinach powder were administered to the rabbits. The phenolic profile of spinach was studied using HPLC-DAD. Investigations were conducted on the liver phospholipid composition, liver-histology analysis, levels of antioxidants, liver-associated inflammatory cytokines, and the serum-lipid profile. The findings revealed that the primary constituents of the extracts were gallic acid, luteolin-3-glucoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside, and chlorogenic acid. Histological and biochemical examination of the liver revealed greater fat storage in the OT-group than in the control or therapy groups. The OT-treated rabbits exhibited increased levels of hepatic inflammatory cytokines, decreased antioxidant status, and elevated lipid profiles. After consuming spinach, the levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-4, IL-6, and TNF-α), PPARs, and antioxidants (CATs, SODs, TBARS, GSH-Px, and GSHs) returned to normal. Dried spinach powder is an excellent dietary source of liver-protective chemicals that ameliorate NAFLD by reducing proinflammatory cytokines and enhancing antioxidant status.