Unraveling the Causal Relationship Between Non-Communicable Diseases, Obesity, and Health Expenditure: Insights from the Toda–Yamamoto Approach

These results highlight the need for policymakers to develop more effective strategies to address both obesity and NCDs. Recommended policies include the implementation of public health programs aimed at preventing obesity, strengthening early diagnosis and treatment methods, and increasing awareness campaigns focused on NCDs. These measures would be crucial steps in improving public health and controlling healthcare expenditures.