An Overview on the Nanoparticles-Based Optical Approaches for Determination of Immunosuppressant Pharmaceuticals

Immunosuppression is a crucial component of post-transplantation care in renal transplantation, as it helps to improve patient and graft survival rates. However, all immunosuppressants share a characteristic narrow therapeutic index, which means that even small variations in dosage can lead to toxicity or ineffectiveness. Despite the undeniable benefits of immunosuppressants, monitoring of therapeutic levels is essential for maintaining a balance between optimal treatment and adverse effects. This comprehensive review highlights the advancements in optical nanosensors based on nanoparticles over the past decades, displaying their potential applications in detecting immunosuppressant pharmaceutical drugs. The appeal of these sensors lies in their affordability and ease of use, as they do not necessitate complex or costly equipment, making them an attractive option for such applications. It hopes that this review will facilitate the development of new research directions and methodologies in this field, ultimately contributing to its advancement.