Al-Ādāb al-Mardiyya: Celebrating Shaykh-Veneration in 18th-Century Moroccan Reforms

The 18th century witnessed significant religious revivals and reforms throughout the Islamic world, including Morocco. While both sūfī and non-sūfī reformist movements advocated a return to foundational Islamic principles, often through purist-orientated approaches that rejected popular Sūfī practices, the Darqāwī Sūfī order took a distinct path. Formed by al-Arabī al-Darqāwī (d. 1239/1823) as a sub-branch of the Shādhilī order, Darqāwiyya was characterized by a revival of ascetism and popular Sūfī practices, such as self-striving, seclusion, begging, and dhikr gatherings, and aligned them with shariʿa principles. Above all, the teachings of Darqāwiyya revolved around the reverence (taʿẓīm) and veneration (ḥurmah) of Sūfī shaykhs and emphasized their central role as intermediaries between the Prophet and disciples. However, these Sūfī practices and emphasis on shaykhs faced condemnation from the Moroccan ruler, Mawlāy Sulaymān (r. 1792 to 1822) who favoured the Wahhābī teachings, despite not fully embracing its doctrines. In quest of exercising control over the zāwiyas, he targeted their religious legitimacy and restricted their Sūfī activities, including those of the Darqāwiyya. In this context, Al-Ādāb al-Marḍiyya li-sāliki ṭarīq al-ṣūfiyya, a Sūfī manual written by the Shadhilī-Darqāwī shaykh Muḥammad bin Aḥmad al-Būzīdī (d. 1229/1814), serves as both an apology and a Sūfī manifesto. Written in the ādāb al-murīd (Sūfī etiquette) genre, this text acted not only as a guide for Darqāwiyya disciples but also as a proclamation of the central role of Sūfī shaykhs, as well as it sought to legitimize the criticized Sūfī practices of the order. This article studies the unique conventional position of the Darqāwiyya Order during the late 18th century Moroccan reforms and present al-Ādāb al-marḍiyya as a significant text defending the reverence and veneration of Sūfī shaykhs, as well as their practices during this period.