Exploring variation in adaptation levels to climate extremes among farmers of the Kyoga Agro ecological zone in Uganda using a cross sectional design

Adaptation to climate change among smallholder farmers is a paramount step in achieving sustainable livelihoods in line with SDG 1, 2 and 13 since these communities face significant challenges due climate extremes which impacts on impacts on their only means of livelihood. Determining the levels in adaptation is crucial in understanding the socio-economics of the impact of climate change in the rural communities. The study investigated adaptation levels and determinants among smallholder farmers in the Kyoga Agro-ecology of Uganda. A quantitative cross-sectional survey involving 384 face-to-face household interviews using structured questionnaires was conducted. Farmers, selected based on climate change awareness, were targeted to respond to their reported adaptation levels. Descriptive statistics analyzed adaptation levels among smallholder farmers of various socioeconomic characteristics across different subzones. A Multinomial Logistic (MNL) model examined the determinants of variation in adaptation levels. Majority of the respondents, 85.9% in the BCMS and 93.8% in the TS sub zone observed that indeed climate change is occurring. Female farmers in the TS subzone were significantly less likely to adopt 3–4 (p < 0.01) or 5–7 (p < 0.01) adaptation strategies compared to the base category (1–2 strategies), while the relationship in the BCMS subzone was negative but not significant. Male farmers consistently demonstrated greater capacity to adopt higher levels of adaptation strategies. Annual income was positively and significantly related to adoption of 3—4 (P < z = 0.70) and 5—7 (P < z = 0.013). Also Education was positively and significantly associated with adopting 5–7 adaptation strategies in both the TS and BCMS subzones compared to the base category (1–2 strategies). Primary education showed significance at P < z = 0.05 in TS (P < z = 0.018) and BCMS (P < z = 0.03), while secondary education was also significant in TS (P < z = 0.052) and BCMS (P < z = 0.014). Essential support, particularly for female farmers, is crucial to bridge the gender gap. The findings are pivotal for informing the formulation of inclusive adaptation strategies among farmers in various subzones. We recommend that the ongoing reforms in the National Adaptation Plans of Uganda and international development frameworks in line with climate adaptation consider socio-economic disparities among famers.