Improving result-based schemes for nature conservation in agricultural landscapes—challenges and best practices from selected European countries

Abstract Result-based payment schemes (RBPS) offer a more flexible, innovative and performance-oriented approach to biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provision in agricultural landscapes, compared to action-based schemes. However, uptake by farmers remains low, likely due to challenges such as lack of appropriate advice, uncertainties related to monitoring of the results and the risk of not receiving the payment. Since detailed information on the design and monitoring of RBPS is often not available in the scientific literature, we analysed 39 RBPS identified across peer-reviewed studies, grey literature, and websites from Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Ireland, the United Kingdom and Spain. This overview highlights the benefits of implementing RBPS in different European agricultural systems, identifies key design features of current schemes that could enhance adoption and addresses shortcomings such as current limitations in the biodiversity and environmental targets considered, monitoring costs and financing. We also provide an outlook on how to improve RBPS to unlock their full potential, especially in view of increasing uncertainties due to climate change.