Evolution of Land Use and Its Hydrological Effects in the Fenhe River Basin Under the Production–Living–Ecological Space Perspective

Analysing the patterns and impacts of land-use changes in the production–living–ecological space (PLES) of the Fenhe River Basin (FRB 39,721 km2), China, is necessary to support sustainable development. Based on remote sensing images from 1990 to 2020, we aimed to analyse the PLES land-use changes. Industrial production and living spaces continuously encroached on the agricultural production and ecological spaces between 1990 and 2022 owing to industrialisation and urbanisation, and the ecological land area decreased by 699.21 km2, while the industrial production land area increased by 521.32 km2. We used the soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model to quantitatively analyse the impact of PLES changes on runoff in the FRB. With the continuous expansion of production and living spaces, the extensive use of concrete in cities has led to ground hardening, making it difficult for precipitation to infiltrate, with surface runoff increasing by 0.3 mm annually. The reduction in ecological space has led to a reduction in forests and grasslands, weakening the water-holding capacity of the watershed and affecting groundwater storage. This study provides a scientific basis for watershed management and the integrated development of PLES.