Far-From-Equilibrium Processing Opens Kinetic Paths for Engineering Novel Materials by Breaking Thermodynamic Limits

Thermodynamic metastable nanomaterials display attractive properties due to their unique atom configuration and microstructure, distinct from their counterparts found in equilibrium phase diagrams. However, their fabrication remains a grand challenge because conventional methods are generally operated under near-equilibrium conditions. To break the thermodynamic limits for discovering novel materials, numerous fabrication methods by adopting extreme strategies have been developed, including ultrafast synthesis, Joule heating, carbon thermal shock, pulse heating, extreme temperature gradients, and rapid solidification. A common feature of these methods is that the target material is processed under a far-from-equilibrium (FFE) thermodynamic state, where a new kinetic route is created for the evolution of an unprecedented composition/structure. In this review, we provide a unifying view and guiding strategies for engineering FFE environments during materials synthesis, categorized within both temporal and spatial dimensions of the thermodynamic landscape. Furthermore, we highlight the potential of FFE materials, not only as platforms for deeper understanding nonequilibrium behaviors, but also as a framework for designing innovative materials for advanced technologies.