Morphological analysis reveals the influence of genipin and polyvinyl alcohol on porous morphology on interpenetrated chitosan xerogels

The morphological characterization of xerogels composed of chitosan, genipin, and PVA demonstrates that their porous architecture is essential to their function as scaffolds for tissue engineering, with significant impacts on absorption properties, cell viability, and potential for biomedical application. SEM and microCT analysis confirmed that these xerogels possess a highly porous internal morphology, with interconnected pores forming an interpenetrating polymeric network, free from phase separation between chitosan and PVA. Hemocompatibility assays confirmed the non-cytotoxic nature of these materials. Varying genipin concentrations showed that lower concentrations produce more heterogeneous pore sizes, while higher concentrations yield a uniform pore distribution, likely due to the increased availability of crosslinking sites. Additionally, the degree of anisotropy increases with both higher genipin and PVA concentrations, suggesting enhanced alignment within the three-dimensional structure. The total open pore volume, which ranges from 88% to 93%, is modifiable based on the concentrations of genipin and PVA. These insights indicate that these xerogels are viable candidates for clinical applications, particularly as potential substitutes for nucleus pulposus, given their high swelling capacity, porosity, interconnectivity, biocompatibility, and adaptable morphological characteristics.