Environmental fate and transformation of TiO₂ nanoparticles: A comprehensive assessment

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles (NPs) have garnered extensive attention for their versatile applications in environmental, biomedical, and industrial fields. Unlike general nanoparticle applications, TiO₂ NPs possess unique photocatalytic, antibacterial, and chemical transformation properties, making them particularly effective in areas such as environmental remediation and wastewater treatment, as well as in advanced medical techniques like antimicrobial coatings and photodynamic therapy. This review critically examines the synthesis, environmental transformations, and biomedical potential of TiO₂ NPs, emphasizing their ability to degrade pollutants, including organic and microbial contaminants in aquatic ecosystems. Additionally, we explore the role of TiO₂ NPs in enhancing antimicrobial efficacy in medical applications. Through a comprehensive analysis of their physical, chemical, and biological transformations, we present insights into their environmental fate and potential bioaccumulation risks. This review underscores the distinctive mechanisms of TiO₂ NPs, presenting opportunities for innovative applications while addressing the challenges associated with their environmental and biological impacts.