“Friends to foes, foes to friends”: polish officers in the Ottoman army in 1840–1870s

In the article, the author examines the activities of Polish officers serving in the Ottoman army in the middle of the 19th century. The research scrutinizes the life and career paths of three remarkable Polish officers: Michał Czajkowski, Konstanty Borzęcki, and Józef Bem. A diverse array of hitherto understudied Ottoman sources, encompassing the works of military leaders and historians, the writings of Polish and French authors, and the annotations of Russian military officials, affords the opportunity to examine the activities of the prominent Polish officers from multiple vantage points. These include their role in the modernisation of the Ottoman military, their personal lives, and the issue of cultural identity. A multifaceted analysis demonstrates the complexity and variety of roles played by the Polish officers in the Ottoman army. Firstly, although they did not significantly alter the course of events on the Caucasus front of the Crimean War, they had a significant impact on the warfare of the Balkan front. Secondly, their principal contribution was to pacify the unstable Ottoman regions and further modernise the military and industrial institutions located in different parts of the Ottoman Empire. Thirdly, the Ottoman state did not become a second home for the majority of the Polish officers. Their conversion to Islam was mostly symbolic, and following the completion of their obligations, a considerable proportion of the émigré officers returned to Europe. The Ottoman Empire was able to capitalise on the influx of educated European specialists, utilising their expertise and knowledge to its advantage.