200 years of Portland cement: Technological advancements and sustainability challenges

Since its invention 200 years ago, Portland cement (PC) has been extensively utilized as a construction material. Looking ahead, the prevailing demand for PC will unlikely drop due to the ongoing infrastructure expansion in India, sub-Saharan Africa, Asia & the Pacific, and the Middle East. It is crucial to examine the latest production technologies of PC from the perspectives of material consumption (base materials, fuels and additive materials), energy consumption (thermal and electrical) and CO 2 emissions (direct and indirect). Such examinations allow for the assessment of state-of-the-art and effectiveness of various medium-term strategies aimed at contributing to Net Zero 2050. Given the diverse market demands, raw material availability, and production technologies across different regions, it is essential that each country develops a tailored strategy framework that addresses its unique conditions and needs.