Editors’ Notes

Learning is lifelong. Adult learning is present in community college courses, first-aid certification courses, professional development courses for the workplace, and informal learning when we replace a car's cabin filter via YouTube videos. The more we know about adult learning theory and the factors influencing adult learning, the better we can address learners’ needs. This Update on Adult Learning Theory, the fourth since 1993, is a helpful resource for new and seasoned scholars and practitioners. The learning theories of andragogy, and self-directed, transformative, and experiential learning are included in this volume. In addition, this sourcebook provides recent information about critical theories and about the brain and learning. Topics not previously covered in the Adult Learning Theory sourcebooks include learning disabilities, older adults, and technology. The new topics reflect societal changes. Since the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, increasing number of adults with disabilities can access educational venues. In 2019–2020, 21% of undergraduates and 11% of those in post-secondary education reported having a disability (Students with Disabilities, 2024) Researchers surveyed 54,204 undergraduate students and found that 15% reported having attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and 5% had a learning disability (American College Health Association, 2022). The CDC reports that approximately 13% of adults in the United States have a cognitive disability (Disability and Health Data Systems (DHDS), Centers for Disease Control, 2024). Ross-Gordon's article on Learning Disabilities and the Adult Learner highlights the importance of understanding and accommodating diverse learning needs in adult education. She reviews definitions, essential models, and legal issues related to disability. She also discusses several types of disabilities. Ross-Gordon provides approaches to developing learning skills with these types of learning disabilities. She concludes with ways to restructure learning environments. Another population of interest that continues to grow is that of older adults. The number of Americans 65 and older is predicted to increase from 58 million in 2022 to 82 million by 2050 meaning they will be 23% of the population in 2050 (US Census Bureau 2023). Older adults today have more formal education than those in past years. In 2023, 33% of those 65 or older had completed college compared to only 5% in 1965 (US Bureau of Labor Statistics 2023) In addition, older adults are working longer and may be required to complete work-related learning. In the article concerning older adults, Jin explains the need for older adults to learn and receive education. Jin provides definitions for older adults as well as learning characteristics. She looks at the learning needs of older adults, the philosophical basis for learning in older adulthood, and learning contexts and content areas for older adults. She concludes with practices for teaching older adults in various contexts. The role of technology in adult learning has significantly evolved in the last 30 years and has transformed teaching and learning. Smartphones have replaced personal digital assistants and Learning Management Systems have become increasingly sophisticated. The expanding role of artificial intelligence (AI) in learning and education is also noteworthy. Guided by the theory of connectivism, Conçeicão and Yelich Biniecki look at how technology is being integrated into informal and non-formal adult learning environments. The benefits, limitations and applications of technology are discussed in addition to future trends. In addition to the topics mentioned above, there are several chapters concerning theory. In the article on andragogy, St. Clair discusses the six assumptions of andragogy, and the eight “process” elements. He notes the philosophical coherence of the assumptions and processes, and their application to learning contracts. He provides the theory's historical background and its theoretical underpinnings. He continues with critiques of andragogy and assesses the influence of andragogy on recently published literature between 2020 and 2024. Self-directed learning (SDL) is a popular adult learning theory. Peno defines SDL and provides key models of SDL. She explores problem-based learning (PBL) as an example of SDL and gives a real-world example. Peno concludes with a discussion of SDL in online environments and provides readers with a real-world example of preparing students to be self-directed in online learning. Transformative learning remains a popular learning theory framework for research, scholarship, and the classroom. McClain reviews the traditional lenses through which transformative learning is seen, explores techniques for fostering transformative learning, addresses critiques of transformative learning, and calls for transformative learning to be a metatheory. McClain concludes with an overview of current research on transformative learning. Dillard et al. delineate Kolb's traditional models of experiential learning and provide critique. They introduce an interdisciplinary approach to experiential learning. They review the advantages of this approach to experiential learning in technology and digital learning, as well as adaptability and sustainability. Last, the authors discuss applying experiential learning theory in various contexts, including higher education, community-based learning and social movements, and professional development settings. Gnanadass and Merriweather provide a history of critical theory in adult education. They note the “whitewashing” of Critical Theory. They discuss feminist-based critical theories, queer theory and pedagogy, race-based critical theories, and intersectionality as a critical social theory. The authors provide methods and techniques for practicing critical adult learning. They suggest using textbooks that focus on the experiences of Black and Brown people, as well as critical ethnography and photovoice in family service-learning settings. To round out this volume, we revisit two content areas mentioned in previous editions of Adult Learning Theory, namely (1) spirituality and (2) the brain. Kroth et al. assert that spirituality is central to adult learning theory and practice. They define spirituality, briefly discuss spirituality in adult education literature, and show how spiritual learning can occur over a lifetime and is at the center of learning. Taylor's article shows readers the importance of the brain in adult learning. More specifically, Taylor provides an historical context of brain research, the complexity and capacity of the brain, and the importance of emotion in the brain's function. She details the effects of the anxious, emotional brain on the learner and how instructors can assist learners in calming this type of brain. She discusses the awareness of embodied reason including embodiment and metaphor, primary and conceptual metaphor, hemispheric differences, and reasoning. The final article pulls together the main themes of the volume: the continued importance of foundational learning theories, the diversity of learners and learning, and the expanding role of technology in adult learning spaces. We conclude that in the last 30 years the main learning theories have become more complex and have worked to consider the context in which the learner resides. Learners have different challenges and as educators, we must work to be as inclusive in our approach to the learners and to learning as possible. In summary, adult learning theory has evolved over the past 30 years. Foundational theories, originally criticized for not considering context or culture, have taken these factors into consideration. In addition, the adult learner has been viewed with increasing complexity as we better understand how the brain and emotions interact. Last, technology continues to change the learning landscape with the emergence of artificial intelligence and other innovations. This ever-changing learning landscape provides opportunities for everyone.