Apoptotic extracellular vesicles: mechanisms, applications, and therapeutic potential

Abstract Apoptotic extracellular vesicles (ApoEVs) are membrane-bound vesicles released during apoptosis, crucial for intercellular communication by delivering bioactive molecules to recipient cells. These vesicles are increasingly recognized for their potential in tumor therapy, immune modulation, and tissue regeneration. Recent studies reveal that ApoEVs play diverse roles in the medical fields. In tumor therapy, they enhance targeted drug delivery and antitumor immunity. Immune modulation is achieved by presenting antigens to immune cells, fostering specific responses. ApoEVs also aid in tissue regeneration, promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Advances in isolation and engineering techniques have improved the purity and functionality of ApoEVs, enabling their use as therapeutic delivery platforms. ApoEVs hold significant clinical potential by transferring genetic material, proteins, and other bioactive molecules. However, challenges such as standardizing production, ensuring safety, and addressing heterogeneity must be overcome. Future research should optimize isolation methods, elucidate ApoEV mechanisms, and develop strategies to enhance therapeutic efficacy. ApoEVs offer promising applications in cancer treatment, immune regulation, and tissue regeneration. This review summarizes the latest research and potential clinical applications of ApoEVs, highlighting their therapeutic promise and the challenges ahead. Graphical Abstract