Dynamical evolution of massless particles in star clusters with NBODY6++GPU-MASSLESS

Context. Low-mass bodies, such as comets, asteroids, planetesimals, and free-floating planets, are continuously injected into the intra-cluster environment after expulsion from their host planetary systems. These objects can be modelled as massless particles ( MLP s). Notably, the dynamics of large populations of MLP s have received little attention in the literature. Aims. We investigate the dynamical evolution of MLP populations in star clusters and characterise their kinematics and ejection rates. Methods. We present NBODY6++GPU-MASSLESS , a modified version of the N -body simulation code NBODY6++GPU that allows for fast integration of star clusters that contain large numbers of MLP s. NBODY6++GPU-MASSLESS contains routines specifically directed at the dynamical evolution of low-mass bodies, such as planets. Results. Unlike stars, MLP s do not participate in the mass segregation process. Instead, MLP s mostly follow the gravitational potential of the star cluster, which gradually decreases over time due to stellar ejections and stellar evolution. The dynamical evolution of MLP s is primarily affected by the evolution of the core of the star cluster. This is most apparent in the outer regions for clusters with higher initial densities. High escape rates of MLP s are observed before the core collapse, after which escape rates remain stable. Denser star clusters undergo a more intense core collapse, but this does not impact the dynamical evolution of MLP s. We find the speeds of escaping stars are similar to those of escaping MLP s when disregarding the high-velocity ejections of neutron stars during the first 50 Myr.