Comprehensive strategies for paclitaxel production: insights from plant cell culture, endophytic microorganisms, and synthetic biology

<i>Taxus</i> L<i>.</i>, an important ornamental, economic, and medicinal plant, is renowned for producing paclitaxel (Taxol®), a potent chemotherapeutic agent. The biosynthesis of paclitaxel involves intricate biosynthetic pathways, spanning multiple enzymatic steps. Despite advances, challenges remain in optimizing production methods. Microorganisms, particularly endophytic fungi, show potential in producing paclitaxel, though with limitations in yield and stability. The suspension culture of Taxus cells is a promising alternative, offering sustainable production, yet it requires further genetic and environmental optimization. Recent advancements in synthetic biology have enabled partial reconstitution of paclitaxel pathways in microbial and plant chassis. However, achieving complete biosynthesis remains an ongoing challenge. This review consolidates recent progress in paclitaxel biosynthesis, highlighting current limitations and future prospects for industrial-scale production.