Agro-extractivism and shifting smallholder dynamics: evidence from Kashmir, India

Research on agrarian extractivism has rapidly expanded, encompassing diverse empirical investigations and conceptual frameworks. This paper centers its examination on agrarian commercialization in the Himalayan region of Kashmir, analyzing the intricacies of this theoretical framework. We explore agrarian extractivism through an empirical lens, investigating its relation to smallholder farming development and the role of the state within Kashmir's unique conflict setting, which influences both agricultural practices and the livelihoods of farmers. We argue that the rise of agricultural commercialization, driven by export-oriented apple monoculture and resource-intensive practices, presents a set of multifaceted challenges. Our empirical model uses a regression with an endogenous treatment effect to evaluate the impact of state-promoted extension services on smallholder farm incomes. Our findings reveal that while agro-extractivism increases land use and value extraction, it does not lead to substantial income growth for smallholders. Instead, it contributes to their marginalization and displacement in the region. Furthermore, we argue that the state strategically promotes agrarian extractivism to consolidate power and sovereignty while seeking to maintain legitimacy. Thus, creating an effective agrarian transition necessitates addressing the participation and rights of smallholder farmers rather than merely facilitating the extractivist tendencies of the dominant neoliberal agricultural development models.