The Autonomous Urban Passenger Ferry milliAmpere2: Design and Testing

Abstract Autonomous urban passenger ferries have the potential to enhance urban mobility. However, despite advances in recent years, operating autonomous surface vehicles (ASVs) in urban waterways remain challenging, not least because transporting passengers raises safety standards to the fore. This paper presents the autonomous urban passenger ferry “milliAmpere2,” developed by the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim, Norway. Design features and test results are presented, covering the investigation of five research questions related to human-centered design, batteries and propulsion, autonomous navigation and control, remote monitoring and control, and risk assessment. A three-week public trial of the “milliAmpere2,” held in 2022, helped to synthesize research outcomes in the context of its operational environment in a confined and well-trafficked urban waterway. The “milliAmpere2” project adds to a growing number of use cases demonstrating the viability of ASVs for passenger transportation. Outstanding challenges for future research are identified, including human-autonomy teaming, remote management of fleet operation, and interactions with passengers, traffic, and remote operators.