Review of the current knowledge and identified gaps in assessing the social and environmental impacts of mining processes in the Lithium Triangle

The energy transition is placing an increasing demand on lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Lithium is one of the most important critical minerals, with the largest global reserves located in the Lithium Triangle (LT), a region between Argentina, Bolivia and Chile. The extraction and concentration of lithium from brines in the LT results in high material, water and land consumption, as well as social impacts on local communities. The aim of this study was to analyse the environmental and social impacts of lithium mining in the LT, in order to identify cause-and-effect mechanisms (impact pathways) that will support future decision-making. To gain insight into the interrelationships between environmental and social impacts, a comprehensive literature review was conducted, encompassing life cycle assessment (LCA) and social LCA (SLCA) studies, life cycle inventory (LCI) data collection, systems thinking and causal mapping techniques. The results demonstrate that, while the literature has addressed key environmental impacts, such as water consumption, there is a need for more comprehensive LCIs and updated LCAs to evaluate the broader environmental impacts of lithium processing. This should include more precise estimates of water uptake, a more detailed chemical composition of tailings, and assessing a broader range of impact categories that encompass toxicity and land use. The brine extraction process has been identified as the main cause of several categories of social impact, associated with the areas of protection (AoP) of human health and well-being, social justice, economic stability and prosperity. Indigenous people are particularly vulnerable. The focus of future SLCA should be on a systematic assessment of impacts to these AoPs. Despite of data gaps and resulting uncertainties, SLCA can be a valuable tool for future political and strategic decisions, particularly when addressing the legal framework for mining, and increasing process efficiency in terms of water and land use.