Microplastics and nanoplastics in drinking water and beverages: occurrence and human exposure

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics have gained significant attention as emerging environmental pollutants due to their widespread presence and potential health risks. In recent years, these contaminants have been frequently detected in drinking water and various beverages, prompting concern about their sources and effects. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the occurrence of MPs in drinking water and beverages and exposure assessments. MP concentrations in drinking water vary significantly across countries and regions, influenced by diverse factors such as the efficiency of water treatment plants, the level of pollution in water sources, and the condition of transportation pipelines. Another critical aspect discussed in this review is the assessment of human exposure to MPs. Similarly, the daily intake of MPs shows significant variation across different countries and regions. Beyond the concentration of MPs in drinking water, an equally important factor is the quantity of water consumed, which can differ by as much as two orders of magnitude between studies. These variations in water consumption are a key focus of this article, as they greatly influence the estimation of human MP exposure. Furthermore, it discusses the limitations of current research, emphasizes gaps in understanding nanoplastics, and outlines potential future research directions.