Earable Multimodal Sensing and Stimulation: A Prospective Toward Unobtrusive Closed-Loop Biofeedback

The human ear has emerged as a bidirectional gateway to the brain's and body's signals. Recent advances in around-the-ear and in-ear sensors have enabled the assessment of biomarkers and physiomarkers derived from brain and cardiac activity using ear-electroencephalography (ear-EEG), photoplethysmography (ear-PPG), and chemical sensing of analytes from the ear, with ear-EEG having been taken beyond-the-lab to outer space. Parallel advances in non-invasive and minimally invasive brain stimulation techniques have leveraged the ear's access to two cranial nerves to modulate brain and body activity. The vestibulocochlear nerve stimulates the auditory cortex and limbic system with sound, while the auricular branch of the vagus nerve indirectly but significantly couples to the autonomic nervous system and cardiac output. Acoustic and current mode stimuli delivered using discreet and unobtrusive earables are an active area of research, aiming to make biofeedback and bioelectronic medicine deliverable outside of the clinic, with remote and continuous monitoring of therapeutic responsivity and long-term adaptation. Leveraging recent advances in ear-EEG, transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS), and unobtrusive acoustic stimulation, we review accumulating evidence that combines their potential into an integrated earable platform for closed-loop multimodal sensing and neuromodulation, towards personalized and holistic therapies that are near, in- and around-the-ear.