Basin-scale spatio-temporal development of glacial lakes in the Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalayas

Glacial lakes are expanding exponentially in the cryospheric environment of the Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalayas (HKH). Rapid glacier melting due to an above mean global annual temperature increase in HKH is attributed as the main reason for the expansion of the glacial lakes. The rapid expansion of glacial lakes increases the risk of future Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) events in the HKH. In the present study, glacial lake inventories for the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra (IGB) river basins in the HKH were generated for 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2020 using Landsat (TM & OLI) at the sub-basin level to understand the spatio-temporal and regional patterns of glacial lakes dynamics, elevational evolution, and changes in the typology. We mapped 17,641 glacial lakes (area: 1082.57 ± 192.601 km 2 ) in 1990, 18,206 (area: 1120.95 ± 198.49 km 2 ) in 2000, 18,399 (area: 1147.12 ± 201.26 km 2 ) in 2010, and 19,284 (area: 1191.81 ± 209.21 km 2 ) in 2020. Between 1990 and 2020, IGB basins showed an increase of 9.31 % in total number and 10.09 % in total area of glacial lakes. In 2020, the Brahmaputra basin had the maximum total area (area: 763.59 ± 132.14 km 2 ), followed by Indus basin (area: 217.47 ± 43.39 km 2 ) and the Ganga basin (area: 210.74 ± 33.66 km 2 ). However, between 1990 and 2020, glacial lakes in the Ganga basin (n: 22.08 %) had the highest growth rate, followed by the Indus basin (n: 14.73 %) and the Brahmaputra basin (n: 4.41 %). In 2020, 76.11 % of glacial lakes were end-moraine-dammed M(e) lakes, followed by other bedrock-dammed B(o) lakes (16.45 %), supraglacial lakes (2.79 %), lateral moraine-dammed M(l) lakes (2 %), cirque B(c) lakes (1.06 %), other moraine-dammed M(o) lakes (0.38 %), and other glacial (O) lakes (1.18 %). Given the rapid growth of glacial lakes in the region along with their likely flood volumes and damage potential in case of their failures, the present study will be of importance for disaster management authorities, an important input for detection of potentially hazardous glacial lakes and for development of mitigation strategies to minimize the impact of potential future GLOF events. • Developed glacial lake inventories for the Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalayas (HKH); • Between 1990 and 2020, the total number and area of glacial lakes increased by 9.31 % and 10.11 %, respectively; • Among major basins, the upper Ganga basin show highest growth rate (n: 22.08 % & area: 23.9 %) of glacial lakes between 1990 and 2020; • In 2020, end moraine-dammed lakes have largest share (n: 76.11 % & area: 79.31 %) among different types of glacial lakes; and • Supraglacial lakes have increased more than two folds between 1990 and 2020.