Profiles of father involvement among unmarried Black fathers and child social–emotional functioning

This study examined patterns of father involvement among 2,040 unmarried non-Hispanic Black fathers (<i>M</i> = 25.27 years; SD = 6.51 years) with low income, and their associations with young children's (age 3 years; 50.34% girls) social-emotional functioning. Latent profile analysis revealed four father involvement profiles: <i>high involvement</i> (50.60%); <i>non-resident, moderate involvement</i> (18.09%); <i>highly engaged, but low cognitive stimulation</i> (25.49%); and <i>non-resident, very low involvement</i> (3.82%). Children of highly involved Black fathers exhibited optimal social-emotional functioning compared to children of fathers in the other profiles. Children of fathers in the <i>highly engaged, but low cognitive stimulation</i> profile showed poorer social-emotional functioning. Our findings showed that Black fathering is a diverse experience with much heterogeneity, suggesting the need for fatherhood programs responsive to different fathering profiles.