Key determinants of postmenopausal osteoporosis: A mini-review of current insights

Osteoporosis, a systemic skeletal disease characterized by low bone mineral density and heightened fracture risk, significantly affects postmenopausal women. This review examines the complex interplay of age, hormonal changes, lifestyle factors, and environmental influences, particularly air pollution, on postmenopausal osteoporosis. With over 200 million individuals impacted globally and an earlier peak incidence in India, there is an urgent need for focused research. This review focuses on estrogen’s crucial role in bone metabolism and how its deficiency leads to increased bone resorption. The adverse effects of air pollution, specifically particulate matter 2.5, on bone health, noting associations between elevated exposure and accelerated bone loss due to inflammation and oxidative stress, were also highlighted. The implications of climate change on osteoporosis risk, particularly regarding fluoride exposure linked to extreme weather patterns, represent a largely underexplored area of research. Explicitly elucidating these multifactorial influences will improve public health policies and promote proactive interventions to reduce osteoporosis risk in postmenopausal women.