Spatial accessibility modeling of agricultural extension services among rural smallholder macadamia farmers in Neno district, Malawi

bPurpose/bbr/br Agricultural extension services (AES) are vital for enhancing smallholder farmer productivity and food security in Malawi. However, long travel times and staff shortages hinder access to extension services from reaching many rural farmers. This study investigates travel times required by Neno Smallholder Macadamia Cooperative (NESMAC) lead farmers to access AES in Neno district, which is crucial for their role in training other farmers. br/brbr/br bMethodology/bbr/br We use a cost-friction algorithm (AccessMod) and qualitative interviews to examine travel time to NESMAC's central meeting locations (NCMLs) under four scenarios: walking, bicycling, motorcycle, and vehicle. We also assess the one-hour catchment area for each scenario.br/br br/br bFindings/bbr/br Our findings reveal inequalities among NESMAC lead farmers in reaching NCMLs, with travel times ranging from 0.1 to 789 min when walking, improving to 0.1–57 min with motorized transport. The catchment area for reaching NCMLs within a 1-hour travel time increases by 19.5% with bicycles and 100% with motorized transportation, compared to 3.7% when walking. Qualitative data highlights difficulties lead farmers face due to poor infrastructure and inadequate extension service providers.br/br br/br bPractical Implications/bbr/br Providing bicycles to lead farmers and motorcycles to extension staff can significantly expand NESMAC's coverage and enable more farmer trainings.br/br br/br bTheoretical Implications/bbr/br Our research contributes to the literature on extension and advisory systems, emphasising the importance of evaluating travel times for lead farmers. The cost-friction analysis of travel scenarios provides insights into AES accessibility obstacles and potential solutions.