Revolutionizing regenerative rehabilitation: Three-dimensional printing for musculoskeletal regeneration

Musculoskeletal disorders, such as bone fractures, osteoarthritis, meniscus injuries, muscle diseases, and tendon injuries, are common disorders among individuals in need of rehabilitation, which are mainly caused by trauma, sports-related injuries, and degeneration. Regenerative rehabilitation medicine aims to enhance the regenerative capacity of musculoskeletal tissues and optimize functional recovery through the combination of regenerative medicine and rehabilitation medicine treatments. However, the ability of these treatments is not sufficient for complete restoration of damaged tissue structures. Three-dimensional printing (3D printing) technology, referred to as additive manufacturing (AM) technique, has the capacity to accelerate process of rehabilitation for musculoskeletal diseases, especially for developing regenerative rehabilitation and engineering rehabilitation. Recently, more and more studies reported the basic and clinical applications of 3D printing in assisting in treating musculoskeletal disorders. Therefore, this review summarized how the 3D printing technologies change the methods of treatment and assessment as well as improving therapeutic outcomes in regenerative rehabilitation for musculoskeletal diseases. Finally, this review discussed the current status of the clinical translation for 3D printing.