The Ultimate Combo: Boosting Adversarial Example Transferability by Composing Data Augmentations

To help adversarial examples generalize from surrogate machine-learning (ML) models to targets, certain transferability-based black-box evasion attacks incorporate data augmentations (e.g., random resizing). Yet, prior work has explored limited augmentations and their composition. To fill the gap, we systematically studied how data augmentation affects transferability. Specifically, we explored 46 augmentation techniques originally proposed to help ML models generalize to unseen benign samples, and assessed how they impact transferability, when applied individually or composed. Performing exhaustive search on a small subset of augmentation techniques and genetic search on all techniques, we identified augmentation combinations that help promote transferability. Extensive experiments with the ImageNet and CIFAR-10 datasets and 18 models showed that simple color-space augmentations (e.g., color to greyscale) attain high transferability when combined with standard augmentations. Furthermore, we discovered that composing augmentations impacts transferability mostly monotonically (i.e., more augmentations → ≥ transferability). We also found that the best composition significantly outperformed the state of the art (e.g., 91.8% vs. ≤ 82.5% average transferability to adversarially trained targets on ImageNet). Lastly, our theoretical analysis, backed by empirical evidence, intuitively explains why certain augmentations promote transferability.