An overview of the origin and developmental trajectory of expedient bone tool during the Early and Middle Paleolithic in China

<p indent="0mm">Pleistocene bone tools can be categorized into two primary types based on a technological organization approach: (1) expedient bone tools, i.e., bone fragments bearing little or no modifications and that were used as such, and (2) formal bone tools, i.e., bone remains shaped into specific morphologies with specific techniques such as grinding, scraping, carving and cutting, etc. In contrast to the latter group of tools, which became widespread in the Old World about <sc>45 ka,</sc> studies over the past two decades revealed that the tradition of expedient bone tools has persisted at least two million years. This review integrates and compares the origin and evolution trajectory of expedient bone tools in the light of recent discoveries on bone technology from the Early and Middle Paleolithic in China, Africa, as well as Europe. The results show that expedient bone tools in China originated roughly between 2.0 and <sc>1.0 Ma;</sc> they were characterized by a mixture of simple and rough manufacturing techniques, with a certain tendency to be more progressive. By the end of MIS 6 to early MIS 5, the typological diversification and standardization of Lingjing bone tool assemblages, along with the evidence of bone fragments as a media of symbolic expression, mark a significant tipping point in Pleistocene bone technology in China. Expedient bone tools continued to be employed even after the widespread emergence of formal bone tools in China around <sc>40 ka.</sc> In conclusion, despite the regional variations, the cultural trajectory of expedient bone technology from the Early to Middle Paleolithic in China is broadly consistent with that in other regions of the world. Based on these findings, we propose some key aspects for further studies on Chinese expedient bone tools, such as methodological and technological approaches.