Zeolite Stone Buddha Sculptures (pulsŏkche) in the Kyŏngsang Province during the Late Chosŏn Dynasty: Production and Transportation

The rising popularity of zeolite stone Buddhist sculptures (pulsŏkche) during the late Chosŏn Dynasty meant that temples and monk-artisans encountered new challenges. The material properties of stone, difficult to transport and limited by regional availability, posed logistical difficulties. Unlike traditional materials like wood or clay, which artisans could work with directly at the temple, stone Buddha statues often required production at a separate location from their enshrinement site. Dedicated workshops, referred to as <i>pulsangso</i> 佛像所 (Buddha statue production site) and <i>chosangch'ŏ</i> 造像處 (statue manufacturing place), were established near stone quarries for the purpose of producing these statues. This indicates that artisans likely completed the sculpting process in these workshops, particularly in ones near Kyŏngju, before transporting the sculptures to their final destinations for eye-opening ceremonies and installation in the main hall. This separation between production and enshrinement reshaped the roles and task delegation among monk-artisan groups. The responsibilities of the <i>chŭngmyŏng</i> (證明, the monk overseeing Buddhist projects and the ritual of depositing votive objects) became increasingly limited in stone Buddha production. On the other hand, monks involved in the image-making process took on a broader range of tasks, from procuring the raw material to carving, to depositing offerings inside the statues. Unlike those who primarily worked with wood and managed the entire production of Buddha images, pedestals, and votive plaques, the monk-artisans working with zeolite stone focused exclusively on the creation of the stone images.