Comparative Study of Essential Oils Extracted From <i>Foeniculum vulgare</i> Miller Seeds Using Hydrodistillation, Steam Distillation, and Superheated Steam Distillation

<i>Foeniculum vulgare</i> Miller is a highly valued aromatic and nutritious plant. The unique compositions of its essential oil make it more valuable in the flavor, fragrance, and medicinal industries. However, the potential of superheated steam distillation for obtaining essential oils from its seeds has not been explored in detail. This study assessed the composition, yield, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities of essential oils distilled from <i>F. vulgare</i> seeds using traditional hydrodistillation, steam distillation, and superheated steam distillation. Superheated steam distillation resulted in the maximum quantity of essential oil (5.24%) compared to steam (3.47%) and hydrodistillation (2.47%). <i>Trans</i>-anethole, fenchone, estragole, and limonene were the main identified by GC-MS analysis in the essential oils, and these compounds were abundant in the essential oil produced by superheated steam distillation. Essential oil distilled by superheated steam distillation presented the highest antibacterial activity against <i>Staphylococcus aureus, Pastrulla multocida</i>, <i>Bacillus subtilis,</i> and <i>Escherichia coli.</i> The highest antifungal activity against <i>Aspergillus niger, Fusarium solani, Aspergillus flavus</i>, and <i>Alternaria alternate</i> was also demonstrated by the same essential oil. These findings demonstrated the potential of superheated steam distillation as a highly effective and efficient technique for distilling high-quality essential oils from <i>Foeniculum vulgare</i> Miller seeds. It is suitable for various applications in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.