Emergence of black spot syndrome in Caribbean reefs: a century of fish collections reveal long-term increases in <i>Scaphanocephalus</i> infection

Despite evidence that certain diseases of marine wildlife are increasing, long-term infection data are often lacking. Archived samples of hosts from natural history collections offer a powerful tool for evaluating temporal changes in parasitism. Using vouchered fish collections from the Southern Caribbean, we investigated long-term (1905–2022) shifts in infections by the trematode Scaphanocephalus spp., which causes black spot syndrome (BSS) in reef fishes. Examination of 190 museum-preserved fishes from Curaçao and Bonaire revealed that Scaphanocephalus infections are not new, with histologically confirmed detections from as early as 1948. However, Scaphanocephalus was rare among archival surgeonfish and parrotfishes, with an infection prevalence of &lt;10% and an average abundance of 0.25 metacercariae per fish. Contemporary collections of 258 ocean surgeonfish and parrotfishes (7 species) supported a 7-fold higher prevalence (71%) and a 49-fold higher abundance (12.1). These findings offer evidence that infections by Scaphanocephalus spp. have increased substantially over the past century and underscore the value of biological repositories in the study of emerging parasites within marine ecosystems. We emphasize the need for additional research to evaluate the geographical extent of BSS emergence, test proposed hypotheses related to shifts in host density or environmental characteristics and assess the consequences for affected species.