Medium and long-term regional water demand prediction using Harris hawks optimisation–backpropagation neural network model

Precise water demand prediction is essential for the efficient allocation and rational utilisation of regional water resources. This study addressed the challenge associated with medium and long-term water demand prediction by introducing a novel coupled model, HHO-BPNN (Harris Hawks Optimisation-Backpropagation Neural Network). Principal component analysis was employed to reduce the dimensionality of potential water demand factors. The performance of the forecasting models was compared through mean square error (MSE), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), mean absolute error (MAE), and coefficient of determination (R²). The findings indicated that the HHO-BPNN outperformed traditional methods, such as BPNN, support vector machines, and grey prediction model. The study utilised the sliding window method to predict water demand for the next 1, 3, and 5 years for five prefecture-level cities in northern Jiangsu Province, China. High prediction accuracy was achieved across various categories of water demand (agricultural, industrial, domestic, and ecological), with the overall accuracy being impressive at 97%. Additionally, the forecasts aligned well with local developmental plans, suggesting practical applicability for urban planning. This study elucidates the key drivers impacting water demand, providing an effective tool for regional water demand forecasting, facilitating efficient and precise water management and decision-making in the future.