Matching vs. Mismatching Signals of External Human-Machine Interface and Vehicle Kinematics: An Examination of Pedestrian Crossing Behavior and Trust, Safety, and Affective Ratings in Interactions with Differently Sized Automated Vehicles

• Pedestrians felt more aroused with larger highly automated vehicles (HAVs) than smaller HAVs. • Higher trust ratings were reported for larger HAVs with static eHMI compared to no eHMI, while the opposite was true for smaller HAVs. • Shorter crossing initiation times when pedestrians interacted with HAVs through dynamic eHMI, which signals automation status and yielding intent. • Pedestrians felt safer and trusted HAVs more with dynamic eHMIs compared to static or no eHMIs. • In non-matching conditions, pedestrians showed more negative evaluations of trust, perceived safety, and affective responses than in matching. Highly automated vehicles (HAVs) will soon be introduced into mixed urban traffic. Pedestrians might have an idea of HAVs. Nevertheless, they probably have never interacted with them before. Moreover, pedestrians will not be able to communicate with HAVs like they are used to with manual vehicles. External human–machine interfaces (eHMIs) are possible design solutions for HAVs to ensure safe interaction with other road users. Light-based eHMIs positively affected pedestrians’ trust ratings, perceived safety, and willingness to cross. However, previous studies often neglected the effect of vehicle size, although larger-sized HAVs could be potentially perceived as the more significant threat. Additionally, the relationship between vehicle kinematics and eHMIs for differently sized HAVs remains an underexplored research topic. This study investigated the effects of vehicle size (small vs. large), eHMI state (dynamic eHMI vs. static eHMI vs. no eHMI), and vehicle kinematics (yielding vs. non-yielding) on pedestrian crossing behavior and their subjective assessment. In virtual reality, we created a shared space traffic scenario, in which the eHMI and vehicle kinematics matched or did not match. For yielding conditions, the results showed that participants felt more aroused with larger HAVs than with smaller HAVs. Moreover, pedestrians initiated their crossing significantly earlier when both vehicle sizes had a dynamic eHMI compared to a static eHMI vs. no eHMI. Additionally, pedestrians evaluated a dynamic eHMI with higher trust ratings, higher perceived safety, and more positive affective reactions. The results manifested that the use of dynamic eHMIs can effectively enhance pedestrian-vehicle communication with a large and a small HAV. For non-matching conditions, the participants tended to rely on the vehicle kinematics for both vehicle sizes. Overall, the study highlighted the potential of eHMIs for pedestrian interactions with HAVs of varying sizes when they are well-coordinated with the vehicle kinematics, aiming to enhance safety and efficiency in mixed-traffic environments.